Safaricom financial situation

Safaricom is a company that deals with telecommunication services, voice messaging and fixed broad band. The company output can be classified as voice, data and value added services. Voice services include Premium Rate Services also known as third party content service, provide recorded information or live conversation for callers. Safaricom Pre Pay services allow subscribers to pay in advance and freely choose a tariff that suits them. Data services include airtime recharging and sambaza. Sambaza, launched in March, has enabled subscribers to share their airtime with their friends and family for free. Okoa jahazi and bonga loyalty scheme has enabled subscribers to enjoy advance airtime and to be awarded for their airtime usage . Mpesa service has allowed customers to easily send money through the mobile phones, a very sophisticated technology, and a first in Kenya. Submarine fiber optic, SEACOM, provides high capacity band width for high internet connectivity. To achieve all these, the company has implemented a number of inputs. It has leased services of several companies as Cellulant, Bernsoft, interactive, Adtel , Mobile Zone and Wasp ,to provide Premium Rate Services to ensure effective live communication between its subscribes and outside world . Ongea 24/7 has enabled efficiency in prepaid airtimes. It has also assisted in dealing in virtual electronic airtime. Safaricom Broadband Modem (Huawei E220) and Safaricom Broadband Router (Huawei E960) has enabled access up to 7. 2Mbps downlink speeds as compared to 236 kbps from other technologies (Michael Joseph, 2009). The company has developed several technological solutions to deal efficiently and effectively with existing problems. The company has launch the fastest internet connection through the 3G technology known as Safaricom live(Michael Joseph,2009). The company also provides a wide range of services including broadband wireless data (Up to 7. 2 of 2Mbps downlink Speeds), video calls and telephony. It is also signing a deal with a European firm to launch fourth generation technology which will see increase in the speed of internet connection from the current 7. 2 of 2Mbps . Safaricom has also launched new products and services in the market that the normal ‘Mwananchi’ can afford e. g. bamba 20, bemba bamba and super ongea tariff which is as low as 80 cents. In September, 2001 it launched ATM top up for its pre-paid subscribers to enable top up at teller machine. It has also created technological problem solving techniques. In the magazine by MaryAnn and Chris (2009) the company has created the widest network coverage in Kenya to ensure that subscribers receive clear signal when communicating (p. 35). Business Messaging Solutions has enabled quick and affordable communication to a large audience. According to Less (2009) Safaricom has a turnover of 70. 5 billion revenues from 61. 4billion the previous year, a 14. 8 % increase, with a market capitalization of 148 billion (p. 18). Safaricom controls the stock market with a listing of 40 billion shares, the highest in Africa. It has an operating profit of16. 2 billion with a profit before tax of 15. 3 billion (Less,2009). Cash of 30. 1 billion from operations remained strong enabling the company to expand its network coverage and ensure that it had a strong network to handle its increasing subscribers. The shareholders fund increased by 19. 9% to 51. billion (Michael Joseph, 2009). The graph shows how the numbers of subscribers have significantly increased as at Nov 2009. Though Safaricom runs the telecommunication industry, it has been faced with stiff competition from other companies as Zain, Orange, Econet wireless, Access Kenya and Wananchi on line. Safaricom has continued market leadership with a control of 79. 1% of the ma rket i. e. 13. 6 million subscribers thus it can be said to be a market price setter. Reduction in GDP growth, increase in margin, Global financial crisis and high oil prices is significantly affecting the company efficient performance. Less (2009) however shows that there has been an upward movement in revenues by 83% to 12. 9% of total revenue despite of these economic back drops (p. 19). The launch of Jibambie promotion, Jambo Contact Centre and 3G and Wimax data services are some of the events the company marks as having contributed to its success. According to Chris (2009) the launch of M Pesa has been a run way success story, with a current 6. 2 million subscribers and shs 17. 1billion transfer from one person to another as at March 2009 (p. 11).

Duality in Frankenstein Essay

Victor and the monster have a special relation that goes beyond any known up to date. Not even Henry Clerval has this relation with Victor; the monster is the fulfilment of Victor and vice versa, Victor hides from society whilst the monster aches for society, Victor does not appreciate the surroundings and nature, the monster lives for it. The monster is what Victor fails to be, for example at the beginning of his life the monster is naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve and a believer in Mother Nature and some superior being, whilst Victor believes he is God by creating life, he is very intelligent and plays tricks on people and he only believes in himself. The fact is that whatever the monster has, Victor is lacking for example, and the monster has love for everyone and is not prejudiced, Victor only love himself as he makes it clear during the novel and maybe he appreciates Clerval but only because Henry is what he wanted to be in the future. Also and most importantly Victor has something the monster will never have, a name, and not only a simple name he has a very well known and prosper name, the monster will never be known and disappear in oblivion, whilst the Frankenstein name will perjure forever, like he says in the begging of the novel, â€Å"I was willing to achieve the fame†. Another thing which marks the duality by these two characters is the social life they both have, most importantly Victor is always sad and apart from this, he lacks any feeling, whilst the monster living in a shed discovers that happiness can be achieved anywhere and is himself joyful even though he see other people being happy, the monster discovers love, Victor discover admiration, the monster learns how to appreciate what he has and what nature gives him, and Victor is not happy with what he has nor with what the nature gives him, he is so unconformity that he has to create his own being and alter nature. Most importantly the monster seeks social adaptation and love whilst Victor hides from people and love, he is repulsed by the idea that he has to marry Elizabeth and he does not have other friend than Henry. Another different thing by both these characters is their love for Elizabeth, the monster demonstrates that he loves her by her aspect, her eyes her mouth she is so perfect that the monster needs her for himself and Victor loves her because he admires her but nothing else so if you compare these two feelings you will see that the complete each other and they in conjunction create love and admiration. The emotions that Victor lacks are very powerful in the monster until the moment of his departure form the DeLacy house. Until that moment the monster does not realise his full repulsion and believes in the goodness of mankind, Victor hates mankind and I’m sure that he would love to be the only man in the world and depend only on himself. And the monster is so good in attitude and feelings and so loving in his interior that we feel so bad for him and so hating for victor that we can’t stand it we have to hate victor because these two characters are like the Jing and jang, the good and the bad which cannot exist with some bad in them, the monster is loving but kills and Victor plays to be good and is unsocial but loved Henry, Elizabeth and his small brother. In conclusion the monster fulfils Victor emotionally and social and most importantly with his will of survival whilst Victor fulfils the monster with that basic needs of small quantities of hate, disrespect and will to be above the others.

Otzi the Iceman

Otzi the Iceman is one of the greatest discoveries known to date. His discovery has a major significance throughout the world, for his age and excellent preservation, the equipment found with him and the contents of his stomach. Other factors which contribute to his significance are the number of different human blood samples found on his clothing and equipment. Carbon dating indicates that Iceman is over 5300 years old with nature preserving him to unprecedented levels. He was found high in the Alps where freezing temperatures and strong cold winds occur allowing him and his equipment to be preserved. The winds dried more than 90% of the liquid in his body which got rid of the parasites in his blood allowing him to freeze without decaying. His massive blood loss through his wound also helped the preservation process. Thanks to these conditions we can study Iceman’s life in the early Stone Age. Initially it was thought that Ozti died due to hypothermia. Later it was speculated that it was part of a sacrificial ceremony. These theories were put to rest after x-rays and CT scans revealed a flint arrow lodged in his left shoulder. Otzi died from a fatal shot approximately 30m away at a 25 degree angle from below. The x-rays and the CT scan also revealed deep cuts on both hands implying a struggle occurred before the final blow which was proved by multiple blood samples found on his equipment. This information concludes that the Stone Age was a violent Era. The Iceman’s equipment is a significant discovery as it tells us the story of his death. Multiple blood samples were found on his clothes and equipment strengthening the theory of murder. But this is not the main reason for its importance. A copper axe was found as part of his equipment with its handle still intact, the only one ever discovered. Not only it is unique but also sets the history of copper making back 500 years in Europe. These artefacts and pieces of evidence are major factor of the Iceman’s discovery. The contents of Otzi’s stomach lead the scientist along the path he has taken over 5300 years ago. Pollen analysis was used on the food found within his intestines to accurately point his route which he travelled up the mountains and the season he died in. It also concluded what tribe Otzi most likely came from. Other food found within his stomach determined what people ate during that period and the last meal of the Iceman. The discovery of Iceman is one of the greatest mankind’s treasures. Otzi’s preservation level allowed the world to have an insight into the lives of humans over 5300 years ago. He rewrote history with his age and equipment setting new records and helping us to understand our ancestry. Thus these factors make Otzi the Iceman a significant discovery.

Iterature comprehension Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Iterature comprehension - Essay Example Robert Lee Frost’s The Road Not Taken is a poem about the contemplation of two different possible outcomes of travel down two divergent roads in the woods. When the traveler is first viewing his choices, he notices that the road down the first path is clear to see: â€Å" And be one traveler, long I stood, And looked down one as far as I could, To where it bent in the undergrowth;† The other path, the one our traveler chooses, â€Å"Because it was grassy and wanted wear† it turns out may not be as different because â€Å"the passing there, Had worn them really about the same†. The contemplation of the two paths, on a literal level, has to do with what the traveler can see and not see on down the road from the vantage point at the beginning of the journey. One path is widely tread and clearly seen. The other one that is unseen, unclear and unknown is the one the traveler chooses. But it is also with this choice that the traveler knows he is ultimately forsa ken the other. After all, as he says, â€Å"Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I should ever come back.† ultimately face when we choose one course in life over another. The poet is telling us about the power of free will, that we no longer live under the age of determinism and pastoral control thus we are free to take our own path in life, which in The Road Not Taken, is the one that others have not. I don’t think that Frost is advocating a specific position in this poem. I just think that he is just showing vs. telling the reader that we exist in a time where we have the power to choose one course in life over another. Thus the lesser traveled path is not always the better path, it is simply the one that is lesser known. The path that has fewer unforeseen consequences at the outset is not greater or lesser, it is simply unknown. I think another misconception that is easy to make about the poem is that the poet is sad or full over regret over the path not taken. â€Å"I shall

Challenging experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Challenging experience - Essay Example The first problem was how the curriculum was presented to the students. These students came to camp expecting to have exciting experiences in the outdoors. The curriculum I was instructed to present was nearly all classroom activities. It had been borrowed from a local school district. The students grew bored quickly with the outlined activities. They said that it felt just like school. They grew restless, talkative and defiant at times as a result of their boredom and disappointment. The second problem centered on the different ability levels of my group of ten students. Some were obviously very academically inclined while others were more interested in just being in the outdoors. There wass also a wide range of cognitive abilities from 5th to 8th grade, so after only one day I could see that spanning this difference was going to be a challenge. The evening of my first day at camp, I met with the director to discuss some changes in approach to teaching the curriculum. I suggested th at much of the classroom instruction could be delivered in a more meaningful way through activities outdoors. I knew this would allow my energetic students more time and freedom to engage in active learning. I also received permission to differentiate the activities based on student ability and maturity. I did this so everyone would be able to participate in ability appropriate activities.

Discuss the extent to which a high level of Emotional Intellegence can Essay

Discuss the extent to which a high level of Emotional Intellegence can make a possitive contribution to workplace performance. Use examples to illustrate your a - Essay Example Slowly, theories have emerged as to how people can build-up their emotional strength, and as to what kind of emotional quotient is required for selection by an organisation. Now it forms the basis of all recruitment processes in most good organisations. Consequently, the definition has been expanded to include emotional identification, perception and expression, facilitation of thought, understanding and management as branches of mental ability (Steve Hein, 2005). Better Emotional Intelligence quotient can help attain better efficiency through maintaining better working environment thereby increase productivity of an individual and the organisations. Scientific evaluation of individuals' Emotional Intelligence during recruitment is in vogue for almost a decade now. A leader with better EI has been consistently a better motivator and performer than his peers during his career. Broadly speaking, these abilities include ability to understand emotional feelings expressed by individuals, direct them for better handling and cognitive processes, understand and respect the complexities of emotions in life and work situations and thereafter manage them for achieving the eventual goal in life or the organisation. All of us have come across parents, friends, teachers, bosses and even children showing emotional outbursts at the drop of a hat making them unpopular among the peers and families There is a separate branch of psychology called Transaction Analysis dealing with why these happen, how to understand them, control them and use these emotions constructively for benefit of the individuals. On the whole, people with low EI not only spoil the working environment around them and bring disharmony in relationships, both personal and professional, they also have a negative effect on the very performance of the individual and thereby low motivation and morale leading to reduced profitability to the organisations. Leaders have a very important role to play in this regard, and EI workshops for them have become norms in most organisations. The ultimate performance of a business is directly linked to a leader's application of Emotional Intelligence (Gantz Wiley Research 1996). The research has brought out a model as to how good leadership values and stable EI would lead to better performance of employees, which in turn could make the customers happy thereby spread the good word. Finally it will mean better profits for the organisation and improved productivity from an individual. Good Relationship Practices (= Better EI) - Employee Results (Performance due o

Government 2 Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Government 2 - Dissertation Example They are the ones that set the goals within the commission or the panel that is if it does not involve the public. If the commission involves the public, then they are in a better position to ask for redirection. The fact still remains that the members are the ones who handle that. The influence that controlling a government has is to possess more power and influence. However, an effective legislature is beneficial in different ways. This is because power calls for the completion of tasks thus assists only those who are powerful. An effective legislature allows quick response to some new developments that go to an extent of preventing terrorism. It is a system that allows rapid change that will benefit different people. This is different with the government power that only benefits those who are in power. They are also the system that forms laws; therefore, it is more important having an effective legislature. Without laws, the government power would be useless at any sense. Part tim e legislators mean that they have full time jobs and might not give their all in the practice. Looking at the long time legislators, we realize that they are those that practice those jobs as full time. They however incur much more costs than the work that they are engaged in. A smaller legislature body may be a way of opening up a more transparent legislature system.

Cultural Similarities Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cultural Similarities - Research Paper Example This paper shall assess the similarities between the African Americans and the Asians, what makes me feel at ease whilst interviewing a person of Asian origin, an assessment of the positive traits and attributes that person displays and finally discuss the changes I would have instilled in the Asian if given a chance to be friends. Being an African American, I selected Asians, for the reason that, we have both undergone discrimination from persons of the European culture since time immemorial. As evident in the work of O'Neil, Asians and Europeans have been through racial tensions; thus, the theme has been of interest to both sociologists and psychologists. Of essence, the individual in question struck my attention, as he was concerned with the kind of treatment they received during their stay in the country. I developed a form of attachment to him, as I in numerous instances, identified myself with the kind of treatment and racial discrimination that he was experiencing. According to O'Neil, African Americans and Asians share similarities in terms of assimilation and acceptance in the society. This explains why a majority of them do not intermarry especially with the Americans. With constant rejection by the society, O'Neil explains the reasons behind constant tension between the two races and the Americans. In this case, the ethnic symbols clearly explain the distinctness between Asians, Americans and African Americans. It is these ethnic symbols that create a form of ethnic unity by the other ethnic groups, as they share the same pleas as ‘outsiders’. This grouping creates a form of boundary maintenance between the ethnic groups. The same applies for Hispanics, Pacific Islanders, and European Americans. I was at first not at ease in the course of my meeting with my interviewee, since he looked held back and I could barely make out the reason behind it. Later on, I realized that my interviewee shares the same outlooks as I do. My interviewee was open, and happened to be very saddened with the racism in the country. In fact, what made me more at ease with him is that he was happy to share his sentiments with me, and was more of the main speaker in the conversation. With this frankness, I realize that the Asians are also affected by the discrimination in the society. As the discussion ensued with my interviewee, I realized that he strongly upholds the virtue of close and strong family ties. As Fong (2002) also emphasizes, family ties differ between the Asians and Americans. My client evidently explains to me how wrong it is for him to leave his family and become independent as they believe in close family ties. In relation to my client, this allows the younger generation to learn from their seniors while in the same family unit. Extended families are very vital for the Asians. I admire and support the fact that Asians are social beings as opposed to the Americans who live as individuals. My client was keen to mention how they pay attention to other persons and I realized that Americans are too individualistic. Despite the fact that Asians have been treated with a lot of discrimination, it is evident that my client is comfortable with his personality and compares himself with the whites as an equal. It is his high self esteem that motivated me, as prior to our meeting I always held the perception that the Whites were superior to Asians.

Julius Caesar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Julius Caesar - Essay Example Moreover political corruption was prevailed to the full extend, and the entire Mediterranean suffered from the inefficient administration of Rome. Just about since 133 B.C. in Rome itself had began continuous period of disorders. Politics, generals and demagogues fought for the power. Partisan armies (such as army of Marius in 87 B.C. and the army of Sulla in 82 B.C.) passed Rome marching. Although the Senate's incapacity to govern was clear to everybody, the majority of Roman citizens wanted to restore the republic government. Julius Caesar was, probably, the first political leader, who clearly understood, that this government was no longer worth of being preserved. Caesar came from the family of patricians, which itself had been originated from Julus - the son of Aeneas, the legendary Trojan hero, who had been born by the goddess named Aphrodite (Venus). Having such renowned ancestors, it was rather simple to Caesar to get a high post in the Roman republic. However, following the family tradition he became a priest of Jupiter, the supreme God of Rome. Strict rules forbade him to leave the city more than for two nights, to divorce with the wife, and to take weapon in his hands. But Julius's fate predetermined the other. Roman politics was divided between two factions, the optimates, who favored aristocratic rule, and the populares, who preferred to appeal directly to the electorate. He became one of the leaders of the populares party, but his patrician origin prevented him from holding the position of tribune, which Caesar had so much wished for. The majority of Caesar's family belonged to the senatorial party of optimates, which represented the interests of old aristocracy. However, Caesar from the very beginning of his political career joined to populares. The reason for this was his kinship to Gaius Marius, a great soldier, whose outstanding career had become an exemplar for young Julius. Caesar' mother Aurelia Cotta occurred from the notable patrician family, and was a real example of Roman matron, whose strictness and exactingness helped to bring her son up as a real soldier and statesman. They lived in a modest house in the Subura, a lower class neighborhood of Rome2, where Marcus Antonius Gn ipho, an orator and grammarian, who originally came from Gaul, was employed as Caesar's tutor.He got a good education and went in for politics in his youth. In 68 B.C. Caesar became the quaestor. His main responsibility was to control the state exchequer and finances. From now it gave him the right to be named the Senator. On being appointed to the position of Aedile, whose responsibility was

Law for Accounting coursework question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Law for Accounting coursework question - Essay Example Moreover, Serena’s offer had indicated that only bids over ?20,000 would be accepted. The first issue is whether there was an offer and acceptance. Serena made the offer, however, Eric, by stating that he would buy the Galileo at ?19,500 instead of the ?20,000 that Serena was asking for, effectively made a counteroffer.1 The reason for this is the â€Å"mirror image rule.† This rule states that an unequivocal acceptance must mirror the offer exactly – any deviation made by the offeree to the offeror would therefore be considered to be a counteroffer. At this point, therefore, it was up to Serena to accept Eric’s offer, as Eric did not offer an unequivocal, mirror image acceptance of Serena’s terms. However, one can state that Serena was not really making a valid offer with her advertisement, as she indicated that she would consider all offers higher than ?20,000. She did not state that the highest bid would be the winner, so to speak, but, rather, o nly indicated that she would consider any and all bids above the threshold number. The courts would state that this was not really an offer at all, but an invitation to treat. An invitation to treat is an invitation for bids. This is similar to the case of Spencer v. Harding (1870) LR 5 CP 561. This case involved the following offer: â€Å"28, King Street, Cheapside, May 17th, 1869. ... Milk Street, up to Thursday, the 20th instant, on which day, at 12 o'clock at noon precisely, the tenders will be received and opened at our offices. Should you tender and not attend the sale, please address to us sealed and inclosed, 'Tender for Eilbeck's stock.' Stock-books may be had at our offices on Tuesday morning. Honey, Humphreys, & Co.†2 The court held that this was not a valid offer, but, rather, an invitation for bids. The wording in the offer in Spencer is similar to the wording in the case at bar, therefore, there probably was not a valid offer made by Serena for the Galileo. That said, when Eric made his statement on the answering machine, this would be an offer. As indicated above, when Eric made his statement on the answering machine, the ball was effectively in Serena’s court, and she could either accept Eric’s offer or not. The question is whether Serena did accept the offer. She finally called Eric in January, after having made the original offe r in December, and Eric had made the counteroffer in that same month. Both parties knew that Eric wanted the dress for his girlfriend’s birthday. Serena might have known when Eric’s girlfriend’s birthday was, as Eric is her brother. Regardless, when Eric’s girlfriend’s birthday came and went, the doctrine of frustration of purpose might apply here. Frustration of purpose is â€Å"Where, after a contract is made, a party's principal purpose is substantially frustrated without his fault by the occurrence of an event the non-occurrence of which was a basic assumption on which the contract was made, his remaining duties to render performance are discharged, unless the language or circumstances [of the contract] indicate the contrary.†3 The leading case in English law is that of Krell v Henry [1903]

Corporation Tech Essay Example for Free

Corporation Tech Essay Corporation Tech will face many security risks with their current network. The user domain is the single most vulnerable part of any network and as such poses the most obvious security risk. To mitigate risks involving the users is to implement policies and training to educate the user on proper use and security best practices. By educating the user on security practices such as secure passwords, safe web surfing, and securing their workstations, many potential attacks can be avoided. Policies and training are also necessary because they can be used as evidence when taking administrative action against a user or intruder in the event the system or data information is compromised. Laptops and workstations have their own set of security risks associated with them. They are vulnerable to being compromised by malware, spyware, or even hackers that take advantage of certain exploits. Laptops, workstations and mobile devices are susceptible to malicious software attacks, theft or loss. Viruses and malware can affect these devices and are usually acquired through contaminated email attachments and hyperlinks that redirect the user to exploited web sites or are transferred through USB storage devices. Viruses and malware can also be acquired by downloading infected files or programs that are designed by hackers. Because of the need to protect systems against threats, all workstations and laptops should be secured with antivirus and firewall software and updated and patched on a regular basis to fix vulnerabilities with the software that hackers may exploit. Since the laptops are mobile by nature they are at risk of being stolen along with all of the data saved on their hard drives. The best security method for this would be to encrypt the hard drives on the laptops and where feasible only store sensitive data on corporate servers and allow authorized user  remote access to the data via SSHVPN sessions. Physical security or lack thereof also poses a huge risk; if an attacker has physical access to your equipment they do not actually need your log in credentials to access data. Attackers could boot your systems up on a live CD and compromise your information without leaving any trace in the logs other than a restart. Even if an attacker has a narrow window for physical access to your systems, they can steal the hardware and gain access to the data from it at their convenience. Secure all removable equipment is locked storage locations with security controls such as cameras and biometric access devices. Distributed Denial of Service (DDOS) attacks are a major concern when it comes to the company’s servers; this is done when a botnet sends an overwhelming amount of requests to the servers until they shut down. The best method to deal with this is to install security hardware or software that can detect these kinds of attacks as they are beginning to take place and filter that traffic out. The hardware is often very effective but also can be very expensive which can be a whole different issue but if you have the funding available I would recommend purchasing the hardware. SQL injections are one of the most common attacks on web based applications, these attacks occur when an attacker inserts a SQL statement that is not authorized through a SQL data channel such as the login screen. This best way to mitigate this risk is to implement string checking for special SQL characters or install software to check the web application for injection vulnerabilities. The software may cost a little money but it will help to prevent unauthorized access to information in your database.

Family Violence Essay Example for Free

Family Violence Essay Family violence is not a new phenomenon, as it has essentially existed since the beginning of time. Only in modern times, however have societies begun to recognize violence and family members as a social problem (Barnett, Miller-Perrin Perrin, 2005). For many years, the social problem of family violence had not only been heavily ignored, but for a number of years, had not been fully understood. For example, family violence takes many forms and has a number of different names. Family violence, also known as domestic violence, spousal abuse, battering, family violence, and intimate partner violence (IPV), is defined as a pattern of abusive behaviors by one partner against another in an intimate relationship such as marriage, dating, family, or cohabitation (Barnett et al. , 2005). Moreover, family violence includes but is not limited to physical abuse such as kicking and punching, but also includes sexual and emotional abuse. Emotional abuse includes controlling or domineering; intimidation; stalking; passive/covert abuse (neglect) and economic deprivation and in many cases is more severe than physical abuse. The changing visibility of family violence is the leading indicator of the necessity of an historical approach to understanding it (Gordon, 2002). Over the past few years, the general public in the US has become familiar with family violence through news coverage of highly publicizes cases, TV programs and movies. At the same time, researchers have made great strides in recognizing the scope of family violence and the context in which it occurs (Barnett et al., 2005). As sociologists know of it today, family violence is politically, historically and socially constructed (Gordon, 2002). In terms of power relations and functionalism, family violence arises out of power struggles in which members of the family are contesting for resources and benefits (Gordon, 2002). Furthermore, these contests arise from both personal aspirations and change social norms and conditions (Gordon, 2002). It is therefore important to know that family violence cannot be understood outside the context of the overall politics of the family. Historical developments that continue to influence family violence include prominent changes in the situation of women and children (Gordon, 2002). It is imperative therefore for a historical analysis of family violence to include a view of the changing power relations among classes, sexes, and generations (Gordon, 2002). Political attitudes have also affected research â€Å"findings† about family violence. Both psychological and sociological interpretations in the debate often ignore the gender politics of family violence issues, and the gender implications of policy recommendations, not only when women or girls were the victims, but also when women were the abusers (Gordon, 2002). Over the past 80 years, four major types of family violence have be studied and examined; child abuse, child neglect, sexual abuse of children and wife beating. In later years, there have been other forms of family violence, which include sibling abuse (which is the most common form of family violence), and elder abuse (Gordon, 2002). Family violence has had many different faces historically, and has been classified in five different stages with different focuses periodically. The first was the 19th century and child saving era, which was from 1876-1910. During this era, there was anti-cruelty to children movement that was influenced by the temperance movement. Emphasis on the cruelty done to kids was placed on the immigrant poor and never the respectable classes (Gordon, 2002). The progressive era was followed by a child saving era which lasted from 1910 -1930 which lead to an emphasis on child neglect. During this era, there was a decrease emphasis on alcohol and identified other forms of stress such as poverty, unemployment and illness (Gordon, 2002). The depressed followed the progressive era where there was an increased defense for the conventional nuclear family. During the World War world war 2 era and the 1950’s child neglect was increasingly seen as emotional neglect and the 1960s and 70s was a period of increased medicalization of family violence which, as sociologists have identified can have extremely negative affects (Gordon, 2002). A lot of attention to family violence began to gain increasing importance during the time of the women’s movement in the 1970s as a concern about wives being beaten by their husbands. Interestingly enough, there was a rise in what some call â€Å"the men’s movement† as response to the problem of domestic violence against men, which is largely omitted in the feminist theory (Barnett et al., 2005). Some flaws in the feminist approach to family violence (as well as others that will be further discussed in the paper), is that it has reduced domestic violence, especially against men as their likelihood of being killed by a female intimate partner has decreased six-fold (Barnett et al. , 2005). OVERVIEW OF SEMINAR READINGS: WEEK 2 Symbolic interactionism is a perspective which seeks to understand how people interact with others (Ingoldsby, Smith Miller, 2004a). The theory claims that people interact with one another by interpreting each others actions (Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). Their response is based on the meanings that they attach to such actions (Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). Thus, human interaction is largely mediated by the use of symbols (Karp Yoels, 1993). Authors Karp Yoels (1993) discuss notions of the generalized other and looking-glass self as examples of symbols with which we interact. In one instance, the self emerges from common expectations that others have about social norms within a particular society (Karp Yoels, 1993). But in another instance, people will self-evaluate themselves against the perceived judgments of others and act accordingly (Karp Yoels, 1993). The emphasis on symbols brings attention to the roles people play. Role-playing is a key mechanism that allows people to see anothe r person’s perspective to understand what an action might mean (Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). In sum, no situation is static but rather contextual (Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). Individuals then through their own behavior and interaction with others, construct their individual social realities (Karp Yoels, 1993; Ingoldsby et al., 2004a). Situating family violence within a framework of symbolic interactionism is important in that it provides a context within which people develop their personal interpretations of events. Therefore to understand family violence requires knowledge of the processes through which such interpretations emerge. Rosen (1996) and Mullaney (2007) illustrate ways in which interpretations of the self are at the core of domestic violence. Their findings are essential for understanding how family violence continues over time. Findings also help to account for the formation and preservation of culture and social roles in society. In one respect, interpretations of the self are mediated through two primary orientations of communication: processes of seduction and processes of entrapment (Rosen, 1996). This first is characterized by forces that tend to draw women into their relationships (romantic fantasies and romantic fusion) and the second by forces that keep them there: survival tactics, cognitive dissonance, roller coaster relationships, traumatic bonding, Romeo and Juliet effects, and peer-family collusion (Rosen, 1996). For example, within the framework of symbolic interactionism, processes of seduction can be loosely defined as a dependent emotional state (Rosen, 1996). Individuals then, connect with partners because they internalize similar understandings of weakness and dependency to communicate feelings of love (Rosen, 1996). The interplay of such communication patterns facilitates an environment of spousal abuse that is likely to continue so long as interaction is repetitive (Rosen, 1996). Processes of entrapment on the other hand, can be argued to demonstrate the externalization of the communication patterns found in processes of seduction. Once meanings of dependency and weakness have been internalized as being both legitimate and appropriate within the context of one’s relationship, these women rationalize such behavior as the norm and thus stay. Survival tactics for example illustrate these efforts, by which women actively engage towards relationship management of an abusive relationship, otherwise internalized as an acceptable social norm. In contrast, Mullaney (2007) identifies low self-esteem as a correlate of men’s violent behavior. Domestic violence then, is a reaction to the attacks or perceived attacks on men’s self-concept (Mullaney, 2007). Mullaney (2007) argues that men will most often justify, yet also minimize, excuse, or blame and offer no apology on account for their violence towards women. These categories serve as scripts through which perceptions of masculinity are restored (Mullaney, 2007). If threatened, masculinity evolves accordingly as men interpret the actions of those around them. For example, women’s irrational spending habits may undermine men’s role as financial provider (Mullaney, 2007). Men would argue that such habits do not align functionally with women’s domestic and social roles (Mullaney, 2007). By doing so, men’s responses are based on the meanings which they attach to such actions and reflect cultural expectations of gender difference. This is problematic because it helps promote and develop stereotypically gendered selves (Mullaney, 2007). Symbolic interactionism then, becomes useful in demonstrating how dominant ideologies of gender are enacted within the interactions of marital relationships, and lend to domestic violence in the process. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Feminist Theory The root of feminist theory begins with the inclusion of gender and power. Feminists argue that the distinctions between males and females are not inherent or functional; rather they are socially constructed to create and maintain male power in society and thus the family (Yllo, 1993). This sense of patriarchy reinforces traditional social roles and the relationship between the division of power and gender. The feminist perspective suggests that men use violence to retain their dominance or sense of control within the institution of the family. Thus, the feminist paradigm believes that domestic violence is utilized as another means of the social control of women, and takes roots at a personal, institutional, symbolic and material level. The application of a feminist lens to Rosen’s (1996) article allows for a very different approach to the processes of abduction and entrapment. The feminist perspective would likely explain that the forces drawing women into abusive relationshi ps were largely due to the social expectations of femininity and masculinity. The concept of romantic fantasies can be explored through gender identities. Here society portrays the male as being a strong, aggressive, independent individual and the female as a weak, docile individual that is largely dependant on their partner. For instance, the fantasy of Cinderella eludes that a man can protect a woman and save her from her problems. Feminists would suggest that women fall victim to these relationships due to the inequalities portrayed by traditional gender norms. Feminist theorists would likely explain the concept of romantic fusion as being due to the extremely controlling nature of husbands within a patriarchal marriage. This type of relationship is defined as Patriarchal Terrorism (Johnson, 1995). Here, the woman in the relationship would be forced to part with her individual characteristics and become completely devoted to her husband (Johnson, 1995). Furthermore, the husband may further restrict the identity of the woman by refusing to allow her to go to work or maintain friends outside of the actual relationship. The feminist lens would offer a slightly different interpretation of the processes that restrict women from escaping abusive relationships. Though women may still use coping mechanisms and adhere to other social forces, outlined by symbolic interactionaists, feminist theory suggests two main reasons why they stay in violent relationships. The first reason women stay in abusive relationships is fro the sake of their children (Emery, 2009). In cases such as these women will stay with the intent of maintaining some stability for their kids by trying keeping the family in tact. The other reasons women may stay are due to the normalization of gender norms in society. Feminist theory sees the root causes of intimate partner violence as a causation of living in a society that excuses aggressive male behaviours (Yllo, 1993). In other words, because these behaviours are so normative, some women may excuse the behavior and treat it as the norm. What is perceived as the norm also varies across culture. Even today, many cultures adhere to traditional hegemonic norms and strongly believe women should be completely subservient to their husbands. In cases such as this, abuse may be next to impossible to escape. The application of the feminist perspective to Mullaney’s (2007) article would allow for a similar analysis of the attitudes of men and their reasons for rationalizing their abusive behaviours. Mullaney (2007) suggests that men will often become violent due to low self-esteem and a perceived attack on their self-concept. The feminist lens would suggest that men become violent due to the inequalities in society that allow men an advantage position and with that gendered norms. Traditional hegemonic masculine norms suggest that men should be leaders that are strong, in control and tough. This is what the men in the study were trying to demonstrate. Whenever, they felt that their sense of masculinity was being challenged they would lash out in an attempt to regain control. The Control Model of Domestic Violence further provides a precise framework in displaying the interconnectedness between violence and other forms of coercive control. Simply put, the feminist theory suggests th at men use violence as a tactic of controlling their abused wives from participating in actions they have not sanctioned. Family Systems Theory The Family Systems theory provides a very unique, holistic perspective on the topic of violence in the family. This perspective describes the family as a unit of interacting personalities. Sociologist Ernest Burgess, best summarized this perspective when he stated that the family is more then just a definition; it is a living, super personality that has its essence in the interaction of its members (Ingoldsby, Smith Miller, 2004b). Each member of the family plays a very important role in the overall functioning of the unit. When applied to the topic of violence in the institution of the family, this paradigm focuses on the family dynamics that contribute to domestic abuse. Subsequently less attention is focused on the individual perpetrating the violence and more attention is paid to the environment surrounding the violence and the role each character in the family plays. The Family Systems perspective offers a diverse interpretation of Rosen’s (1996) article on the processes of abduction and entrapment. Family Systems Theorists differ with respect to how they feel that women are drawn into abusive relationships. This perspective identifies the connection between family goals, rules and control, and how together one can fully understand the development and causation of domestic abuse (Ingoldsby et al., 2004b). For example in the article by Rosen (1996), it can be seen that by using family systems theory and studying familial interactions that certain females may be predisposed to the Cinderella and Beauty and the Beast paradigms. By looking at how their families’ function, one may be able to see the recycling effect due to unresolved or violent backgrounds these victimized individuals may come from. They may fall into a similar pattern from what they know at home, thereby examining the origins of this behavior and viewing the interconnectedness of how one internalizes family rules and ideas of control. Family System’s Theory offers a unique interpretation as to the role women play in becoming stuck in abusive relationships. In the stages preceding marriage, women will often date their partner, while simultaneously leading separate lives which consist of separate relations. As the commitment in a relationship increases, a couple begins to modify their individual social lives. In these types of situations, both men and women will often make more time for one another. This allows for the woman to feel appreciated and loved. As the relationship continues to progress, incidents of sexual jealously among men will often become a major source of conflict. This sense of possessiveness will ultimately cause the female to begin severing ties with male friends, and become increasingly committed to her future husband (Dobash Dobash, 1993). Once married, dramatic changes occur and the extreme constriction of the wives social life takes place. With the introduction of children, comes the solidification of traditional gendered norms. Wives become extremely restricted and are left responsible for domestic work, such as the operation of the home (Dobash Dobash, 1993). This may cause women to become increasingly dependant on their husbands. Subsequently, when sources of conflict occur, such as sexual jealousy, disputes over domestic duties or the expenditure of money, women may feel that they have no mobility and are stick in their current situation. Lastly, Family Systems Theory offers a holistic approach to the factors found in Mullaney’s (2007) article that cause men abuse their partners. Like Feminists, Family Systems theorists also believe that a very important aspect of traditional hegemonic masculinity is the element of control. However, unlike the feminist theory this approach attempts to understand what causes men to lose control. One explanation is that violent men often feel as if they may lose control, if they express their emotions, and thus hold it in. This in turn, causes violent men to generally be less emotionally reactive to stress on a day-to-day basis, then non-violent men (Umberson, Anderson, Williams, Chen, 2003). Though in the short term, repression may be a successful coping strategy for reducing stress and anxiety, it causes the individual increased predicaments in the long run. Repression turns a violent man into a ticking-time bomb, one that is ready to explode in a violent manner. As a result, unlike feminist theories or social interactionism, family systems theory attempts to understand violence in the family by examining every interdependent part of the family. This includes the part both the victims and the offenders play, as well as the role everyday stresses and ones immediate environment have in contributing to family violence. Social Constructionism The methodological approach of Social Constructionism somewhat contrasts the assumptions of other theoretical perspectives that explore the issue of family violence. This paradigm suggests that the emergence of social problems is heavily due to how society, or more specifically institutions within society such as the mainstream media, portrays the issue at hand. Furthermore, social constructionists are often referred to as claims-makers, in that they present a claim that attempts to define the problem at hand. These claims can be heavily influenced by the agenda of the claims-maker, and will clearly identify the roles of the characters within the construct of the event. For instance, social constructionists will identify the perpetrator of the violence as the villain and the abused partner as the victim. The analysis of Rosens article surrounding the processes involved with seduction and entrapment, using a constructionist lens, provides a different interpretation to the ways women b ecome bound to abusive relations. This perspective focuses on the subjective definitions that cause social problems and look to frame the phenomena of family violence as a social problem (Loseke, 2005). For instance, symbolic interactionism maintains that some abused women are bound to relationships by the process of cognitive dissonance. In cases such as this, women create discrepancies between what they believe the violence in the relationship signifies and what is actually happening. Constructionists on the other hand will focus very little time into how women construct the violent situations. Instead this perspective theorizes that these women have fallen victims to the violent, controlling nature of their abusive, villainous male partners (Loseke, 2005). The media or other primary claims-makers would further emphasis on violent verbal claims, visual images and specific behaviours. The reason of this is to evoke the emotions of society in order to persuade society that a troubled condition exists. The application of a constructions lens to Mullaneys article on the reasons and types of rationalizations men provide for spousal abuse would allow theorists a better understanding of the ways victims and villains perceive family violence. The social constructionist lens suggests that men create their own social reality. This reality allows men to rationalize their behaviours. For example, in Mullaney’s (2007) article men would often minimize, justify or even deny abusive behaviours. These men will often excuse their behaviours by blaming social or external factors, such as alcohol abuse and the structural problems associated with poverty. These claims are sometimes able to persuade audiences and have allowed for some villains to be rehabilitated through the medicalization of their deviance. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic Interactionism is a key tool to examine domestic violence and its various intricacies. In essence, SI theory attempts to look at domestic violence from the viewpoint of individuals and their interactions with other people. This theory explains that individuals are engulfed in a symbolized environment, where the meanings for these symbols are altered within the course of interaction with other people (Karp Yoels, 1993). For example, in the article â€Å"The ties that bind women to violent premarital relationships: Processes of seduction and entrapment†, SI is exemplified in the notion of cognitive dissonance. If a man were to slap his wife, while she may see this as an expression or symbol of love, many other people would see this as abuse. Therefore, the difference and meanings of symbols is very fluid, changing and subjective. Furthermore, SI theory is extremely effective in allowing researchers to understand and describe the individuals and their behaviors. It allows an understanding of how conflicts and complex behavioral patterns may arise in relationships, and how the interpretations of symbols may play a role in domestic disputes. This theory is quite effective in predicting future behavior (SI theory is advantageous to use as it grows and adapts to changes within society) and the roles they may play in the relationship either as a perpetrator or a victim, and the context in which these roles are played (Karp Yoels, 1993). Rosen (1996) explains and clumps together several types of entrapment processes, such as placation or isolation, which predicts why and how females are coerced to remain in that sort of relationship. In addition, this theory does lack certain key elements in understanding domestic violence in its entirety. Due to the quite narrow scope of analysis, it is not very useful in understanding more macro levels of interactions such as groups or family systems. Another disadvantage is that it is quite difficult to apply the theory to other cultures, as its findings and hypotheses are based on a singular cultural atmosphere. Since monotony across cultures does not exist, a grand, overarching theory of domestic violence cannot be established, thereby making international or cross-cultural comparisons quite trying. Feminism Domestic violence as viewed through the feminist perspective focuses on the relationship between gender and the division of power in the familial framework (Yllo, 1993). This framework allows domestic abuse to be viewed in a way that is quite distinct from other theories. Feminist theory reveals that the social expectations regarding masculinity and femininity give relationships their shape, which may result in violent and abusive familial relations (Yllo, 1993). Feminist theory allows for the recognition of the effects of patriarchy in an abusive relationship, which is normally neglected in other theories. For instance, the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) looks at the violence in families, however it neglects several other aspects that could contribute to violence. CTS assumes that males and females are both equally violent in domestic relationships however, feminists note that CTS fails to account for the social expectations (Yllo, 1993). The social expectations of the division of power between a male and female within a relationship can give rise to the abuse and therefore, it cannot be assumed that males and females are equally violent and there are statistical measures that portray a gendered view. For example in the reading, â€Å"Patriarchal terrorism and common couple violence: two forms of violence against women† it can be seen that feminism denotes a difference in the types of violence that occur in domestic partnerships and further differentiates between common couple violence and patriarchal terrorism. This article notes that while CTS looks only at a limited number of control tactics, feminism can shed light to several other controlling methods. While, one can see that feminist theory brings up key defining points that are commonly overlooked, it does remain flawed in many respects. Feminist theory is difficult to apply to forms of domestic violence except for spousal abuse; specifically it only examines the abuse directed towards women. It automatically victimizes the female, and thereby situates the male in role of the villain. Another disadvantage of using solely feminist theory is that same-sex relationships are also not taken into account in their analyses, since it is assumed in feminist analysis that males are the perpetrators and use violence in the relationship to control women. For instance in the article, â€Å"The ties that bind women to violent premarital relationships: Processes of seduction and entrapment†, the analyses are based on the observation of heterosexual relationships. It did not look at how and if these processes of entrapment are applicable to homosexual relationships, for instance, do the Cinderella or Beauty and the Beast paradigm still adequately explain why homosexuals remain in violent relationships. It can be seen that there is a victim/perpetrator structure of the violent relationship, however it cannot be concluded that the processes that entrap victims in violent relationship are similar for same-sex couples. Family Systems Theory Family systems theory is a more holistic approach to understanding abuse within the family and further looks into how everyone within this framework is interconnected. Therefore, it explains how the individual affects the family system and vice versa. Through this analysis, one key contribution of this theory is that it paves the way of identifying the connection between family goals, rules and control, and how together one can fully understand the development and causation of domestic abuse (Ingoldsby et al., 2004b). For example in the article by Rosen (1996), it can be seen that by using family systems theory and studying familial interactions, certain females may be predisposed to the Cinderella and Beauty and the Beast paradigms. By looking at how their families’ function, one may be able to see the recycling effect due to unresolved or violent backgrounds these victimized individuals may come from. They may fall into a similar pattern from what they know at home, thereby examining the origins of this behavior and viewing the interconnectedness of how one internalizes family rules and ideas of control. In the article, â€Å"Stay for the Children? Husband Violence, Marital Stability, and Children’s Behavior Problems† it clearly articulates that the violent behavior is internalized or externalized by children by prolonged exposure of violent behavior. The cyclical pattern of violence is foreseeable in these sorts of family arrangements, thereby being consistent with the idea that the system of family and the individuals within it are affected by each other on a constant basis. Family Systems theory also helps identify the different sorts of family structures in terms of their communicational boundaries and also allows the recognition of the various outcomes for a particular situation (Ingoldsby et al., 2004b). Understanding that there are multiple outcomes for a given situation sets a more encompassing investigation and limits the likelihood of leaving something out or missing a key-contributing factor. It also allows a point of differentiation, and assumes that not all people react the same when the situation arises. This is important as it further provides the researcher with a defining and narrowing point as to which sort of family has a higher likelihood for domestic violence to occur and persist. Some of the downfalls of using family systems theory are that it is often criticized that it is too general and therefore, its application remains vague. The vagueness stretches from the assumption that systems theory is not a true theory rather it is a model that is more methodological than theoretical. Social Constructionism Social constructionist theory is a popular theory used to examine the roles played in an abusive relationship. An advantage of constructionist theory is that it clearly identifies the victim and the villain within the construct of the particular event (Loseke, 2005). Claims-makers are portrayed as practical actors constructing successful claims that reflect existing culture, and producing new culture of various social problems, specifically family violence. Social constructionism also allows domestic violence issues to be raised to the forefront and become more public, through the media. Through its application and explanations, this theory can be used to show how knowledge is socially constructed and how that knowledge reflects power and politics in family violence situations. Furthermore, it can give shape to other forms of domestic violence through counter claims making, such as husband abuse. Unlike other theories, constructionism is quite useful in examining other types of abuse and not singularly looking at wife abuse like feminism (Loseke, 2005). Constructionism allows for the understanding of child or elder abuse in the household. This theory also helps understand how people construct realities that keep them in abusive relationships, and how the relationship may be viewed differently to other people. In the article by Mullaney (2007), the construction of the men’s reality of the situation may differ from what abuse has occurred to the wife. The husband may reframe the abuse as â€Å"non-violent† or suggest that in that instance of abuse that it was not the â€Å"real him† that was carrying out the abuse. The disadvantages of using social constructionist theory are that due to the fact that individual events are a crucial component to the analysis, its subjectivity allows much room for debate. This makes it difficult to develop a theory that can encompass all the social realities and have it apply to all domestic violence cases cross-culturally. While looking at the article â€Å"Creating clients: Social problems work in a shelter for battered women,† it can be seen that shelters create an ideal client that one must fit in order to be allowed to be in the shelter. Creating this sort of criteria leaves out many other people who typically do not fit the stereotype or do not meet the conditions set out by the providers even though they are in need of assistance. Using this theory, it seems as though society has constructed an â€Å"ideal† victim and those who do not appear to fit this idealistic view of a victim are often rejected despite their need for immediate attention. Social constructionism therefore does not grant that everyone experiencing violence will be offered assistance, as this is based on the shelter’s perception of what a victim should look like. Family violence is a very serious social problem, and while social critics focus on how to achieve social change in this regard, social constructionists work to achieve new knowledge. Thus, social constructionism does not only pose a potentially dangerous approach to understanding and treatment of family violence, but it also does not examine objective conditions in their own right and seek to solve this social problem; essentially there are â€Å"no real truths† due to the subjectivity of the theory. REFLECTION Although much research and knowledge has been gathered in the field of family violence, there are ways in which this research must progress. Theoretically, family systems theory, symbolic interactionism, social constructionism, and feminist perspectives each have advantages in their application. As previously discussed, they each additionally have faults that hinder the study of family violence. We propose that a new theoretical framework be considered which essentially combines different aspects of each. For example, the notions of cause and effect associated with family systems, with an understanding of roles, salience and identity associated with symbolic interactionism. These theories can additionally be used to critically examine the core concepts of each. For example, how is the process of the looking-glass self influenced by the double-bind. Theoretical application in these ways may lead to new ways of perceiving family violence. The study of family violence also should attempt to increase its scope. Studies of family violence must adjust due to emerging and increasingly common alternative family forms; same-sex parent families and polygamous relationships are such examples. Methodologically, the study of family violence should attempt to attain a more culturally diverse sample. Many of the readings focused on this semester relied on a predominantly Caucasian sample, and studies focusing on different ethnicities would be beneficial. If researchers are to examine alternative family forms they must also establish a methodology that is sensitive to the stigma surrounding different identities, for example the emasculation associated with husband abuse, or the intersection of a homosexual identity within a context of family violence. Researchers should also establish a methodology that accounts for those patterns of violence considered â€Å"less severe† than others such as verbal abuse, as studies pertaini ng solely to physical violence are not enough. Practically, we suggest that researchers focus on early intervention through education. Researchers should aim for the implementation of programs directed to informing children and teenagers about this social issue. With increased awareness may come increased action towards ending the problem. These programs may assist a young person who is dealing with family violence, giving them an opportunity to speak to someone about it. Making the issue visible, giving it a platform to be discussed and early intervention is requisite to decreasing the frequency of family violence. The application of different aspects of the theories discussed this semester will be beneficial to the study of family violence as a whole. The fallacies of one theory may be redeemed through the usage of another. When evaluating such troubling social issues such as family violence, it is important to always think critically. In the cases of physical violence, we know that though symbolic interactionism, family members react to a situation based on their ability interpret the situation. So, it is important to understand the symbols the family uses to understand their interactions and behaviors. If a family is exposed to continuous physical abuse, in what ways do the family members interpret and internalize it? Why is it that many of the abused women came from families where no abuse was present and moreover continue the cycle of abuse? Where has the self worth gone or was it ever there in the first place? We now know some of the reasons why family violence is not reported and a lot of it has to do with the social stigma that is attributed both by those receiving the abuse and those who are the abusers. By building on – rather than challenging – the theories we can expand our knowledge and practically implement programs to assist those dealing with family violence. REFERENCES Barnett, O. W., Miller-Perrin, C. L., Perrin, R. D. (2005). Family violence across the lifespan: An introduction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publications. Dobash, R. E. Dobash, R. (1993). Violence against wives. In B. Fox (Ed.), Familypatterns: Gender relations (pp. 299-317). Toronto: Oxford University Press. Emery, C. R. (2009). Stay for the children? Husband violence, marital stability, and children’s behavior problems. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 71, 905-916. Gordon, L. (1989). The politics and history of family violence. In A. Skolnick J. Skolnick (Eds.), Family in Transition (pp. 68-86). Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company. Ingoldsby, B., Smith, S., Miller, J. (2004a). Symbolic interactionism theory. In B. Ingoldsby, S. Smith, J. Miller (Eds.), Exploring family theories (pp. 81-92). CA: Roxbury Publishing Company. Ingoldsby, B., Smith, S., Miller, J. (2004b). Family systems theory. In B. Ingoldsby, S. Smith, J. Miller (Eds.), Exploring fa mily theories (pp. 167-179). CA: Roxbury Publishing Company. Johnson, M. (1995). Patriarchal terrorism and common couple violence: two forms of violence against women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 283-294. Karp, D., Yoels, B. (1993). Socialization and the construction of social reality. In D. Karp W. Yoels (Eds.), Sociology in everyday life (pp. 37-59). Illinois: Waveland Press. Loseke, D. R. (2005). Construction people. In D. R. Loseke (Ed.), Thinking about social problems: An introduction to constructionist perspective (pp. 75-96). London: Aldine Transaction. Mullaney, J. L. (2007). Telling it like a man: Masculinities and battering men’s accounts of their violence. Men and Masculinities, 10, 222-247. Rosen, K. (1996). The ties that bind women to violent premarital relationships: Processes of seduction and entrapment. In D. Cahn S. Lloyd (Eds.), Family violence from a communication perspective (pp. 151-176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Umberson, D., Anderson, K., Williams, K., and Chen, M. (2003). Relation dynamics, emotion state, and domestic violence: a stress and masculinities perspective. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65, 233-247. Yllo, K. (1993). Through a feminist lens: Gender, power, and violence. In R. Gelles D. Loseke (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (pp. 47-62). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

The Code Switching Among Students

The Code Switching Among Students This essay deals about code-switching phenomenon among students in MARA College Seremban and the research question is Code switching: Why has it become a wide spread phenomenon among students of MARA College Seremban?. The historical background about the establishment of English language in Malaysia has been provided and the term code-switching has been defined. In Malaysia, code-switching is happening between Malay and English language. Several students from the college have been interviewed to get their opinions about what causes the phenomenon to be widely used by students. Therefore, seven factors that contribute to the phenomenon among students have been identified. A number of 30 students were given the questionnaires in order to get their feedback on how frequent did they code-switched in daily conversations and to whom they mostly preferred to code-switched whether with friends, teachers or family. Several reasons why students preferred to code-switched in conversation have b een investigated from the questionnaires. Besides that, a survey about students perceptions towards the phenomenon has been successfully conducted. An example of dialogue in a group of friends is provided to show the code-switching happened between them. In Malaysia, Malay language or Bahasa Melayu is the countrys first language while English is the second language. As second language it has its own impact on the Malaysian society especially in communication between people. Nowadays conversations held between two people or in a group are no longer using Malay language totally. Most Malaysians prefer to import some of the English words to complete their sentences during conversation. Some English words like so, if, because, after, etc have been used by many Malaysian. Today, it is observed that more and more teenagers are mixing the two languages together. Code- switch phenomenon has widely spread among people in Malaysia. Besides, the phenomenon has become more popular among the urban society in this millennium era. Because it is so popular, people from various levels constantly use it in various occasions. From my observation, almost all young people in this country would code switch while conversing among themselves. They also code switch in any and every situations such as in classes, restaurants, libraries and others. Various words from English are being used in everyday conversation but they are not using English language completely and because the phenomenon has become very popular among Malaysians it has raised my interest to conduct a research on it. I decided to focus my study on students of my college, MARA College Seremban . Thus, I come out with my research question Code-switching: Why has it become a widespread phenomenon among students of MARA College Seremban?. MARA College Seremban is situated in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Its students are currently undergoing International Baccalaureate Programme and Cambridge Advanced Level Programme for two years and most of the subjects learnt are mainly in English. Therefore, the medium of instructions is English. Currently, this college offers foundation programmes for students under MARA scholarship who are pursuing their study in Medicine, Dentistry, Biotechnology, Engineering, Accountancy, Teaching English as Second Language, and Teaching in Mathematics and Sciences to various universities in Australia, New Zealand, India and Czech Republic. In my research, I have conducted a survey to students of MARA College Seremban to find out the number of students who usually code-switch in daily conversations. I have also interviewed several students to get their personal views about this phenomenon. Besides that, I also studied factors that contribute to code switching, reasons why students like to code switch and how the students perceive the phenomenon among the society. I have prepared questionnaires to 30 students in this college, age range between 19-20 years old. Through the questionnaires, I was able to gets answers for my research. I have included the historical background about the English language in Malaysia and defined the term code-switching for further understanding about the establishment of English language in Malaysia; and the code switch phenomena. Also , in order to identify the uses of English words in everyday conversations I have prepared several examples of every day conversation among Malaysians that invol ved code switching. Finally, through the research done, I was able to make a conclusion at the end of this essay. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND- HOW ENGLISH LANGUAGE SPREAD IN MALAYSIA? English was first introduced in this country during the colonial empowerment over Malaya 53 years ago before Malaysia obtained its independence in 1957. British empowerment had caused several missionary schools to be built in several places in Malaya (Baskaran, 2002a). From pre-Independence days to post-Independence times, English medium schools were the first attempt at education, other than the religious schools for the local Malay (Baskaran, 2002b). As such, English became a coveted language with the Malay language, and all other vernaculars, taking a back seat as fluency in the language would almost guarantee a government position (Normala, n.d.). After the colonial era in Malaysia ended, the teaching of English is continued by the government of Malaysia. The education system in Malaysia regards English as the second important language that should be learnt in schools. Therefore, the emergence of many individuals who are bilingual started since the pre independence year of Malaya. Now, as the national education system in Malaysia make it compulsory for every school in Malaysia to teach Malay as the first language and English as the second language. The teaching of these two languages has caused a phenomenon known as code-switching to occur among Malaysian. As more people are bilingual, they actually prefer to mix the two languages in many occasions. In this research, I will focus on students of MARA College Seremban. CODE-SWITCHING- WHAT IS CODE-SWITCHING? Laura (2004a, p.5) writes that: Code switching is the use of words and structures from more than one language or linguistic variety by the same speaker within the same speech situation, conversation or utterance. There are two different types of code switching mentioned by which is conversational code-switching and situational code-switching. Conversional code-switching is the use of two languages by the same speaker within the same speech event and situational code-switching as language alternation by the same speaker in different speech situations, though the speakers utterances within each situation are monolingual. Laura (2004b, p.11) states code-switches were used for reasons other than just to fill lexical gaps. Most students in Malaysia have the ability to communicate bilingually. Therefore, the code switching will occur between these two languages. Roberto and Jeffrey ( n.d.) also states that Speakers of more than one language (e.g., bilinguals) are known for their ability to code-switch or mix their languages during communication. Traditionally, code-switching has been viewed as a strategy to compensate for diminished language proficiency. The premise behind this theory is that bilinguals code-switch because they do not know either language completely. This argument is also known as semi-lingualism, which underscores the notion that bilinguals almost speak both languages correctly. FACTORS CAUSING STUDENTS TO CODE-SWITCH IN DAILY CONVERSATIONS. Graph 1 : Factors that cause students of MARA to code-switch in daily conversations. The graph bar described Factors that influenced the students of MARA College Seremban to code-switch in everyday conversations. The first bar showed percentage of student influence by their friends to code- switch in daily conversations. The bar showed that, 100 percent or all the students agree that peer pressure influenced them to code-switched during their conversations. Friends is one of the major factors that influence the MARA College Seremban students to code-switch during conversations. Friends are people who the youth interact with most of the times. Friends can be considered to be the most influential elements in the youth world. Therefore, the youth is affected by the culture adopted among their friends. The second bar displayed that about 73.3 percent agreed that their own interest brought them to code-switch during talking with others whereas another 26.7 percent disagreed. Several people are interested to code-switch in their conversations with others. They find the language interesting to them so they use it in multiple conversations with people. They believed that by practising they could improve so they practised using several English words and they normally include the words when speaking with others. In my opinion, self interest is a drive from oneself without the influence of others to study and understand the foreign language that is English. The third bar presented that 66.7 percent disagreed English materials caused them to code-switch when speaking. However, 33.3 percent admitted that English materials have caused them to code-switch. Through reading, one can find many new words and people who read English materials such as English novels or magazines everyday will find more new words through their reading. Thus, many like to use these words in their everyday conversations. Most of them believed that reading English materials made them to speak more appropriate English with less grammatical errors therefore, they speak it completely rather than code-switch. For the fourth bar, it displayed that about half of the students agreed that they are affected by English movies, tv series, dramas etc to code-switch when speaking while the other half disagreed. English movies, dramas and series influence their viewers from various aspects. Students are attracted to their way of speaking and mimicked them in their daily conversation. Students would find mimicking the actors or actresses fun and entertaining. This is the way that it may influenced the students to act or use certain words in their daily conversation. However, other students said they are not affected by the English movies as the accent is hard to follow and students hardly pronounce words like the US or British do. Besides, they watch movies for entertainment so they did not put much attention to the words in the dialogues among the actors. The fifth bar, described about 46.7 percent of students agreed that advertisements influence them to code-switch in daily conversations whereas 53.3 percents of them disagreed. Many advertisements in Malaysia use mix match language to promote their products and merchandise. The advertisement use English with Malay language to do their promotions as for example Indah Water. This brand name belongs to a company in Malaysia. They used the word Indah in Malay and Water in English. Students would read the advertisements or watch it on television and the words or sentence used in the advertisement would be captured by their minds especially catchy words. Many would use the words when speaking with people thus agreed that advertisement influence them to code-switch. Whereas there are students who feel that advertisement would not affect them as the advertisement promotes brands not words. They would remember only the brands not the words used during the advertisements. The sixth bar, presented that 50 percents of the students agreed that family influenced them to code-switch when talking with others, while the other half of the students disagreed. Conversation in a mix of languages such as Malay and English among family members influence the youth to speak the same way. Youth spend a lot of their time with family members. The language used by the family members most probably affects the students. Therefore, the way they speak would follow the way their family members speak because the time spent with family members is much longer than time spent with other people. The final bar showed that 90 percent of undergraduates agreed that the norm of the society influenced them to code-switch in daily conversations. Only 10 percent of the undergraduates disagreed. Most Malaysians usually code-switch or have their conversations in mix- match language and it can also contribute to the use of mix- match language among the youngsters in Malaysia. Almost all the correspondence agreed that it is the norm of society that influences them to speak mix-match language. The usage of mix-match language has become a norm among adults, teenagers and even children. The usage has spread widely that people assumed it to be a natural behaviour among them. Therefore, the youngsters are also following this trend as their friends and people living around them are speaking the mix match language. Usually, Malay youth will mix English and Malay words together in their conversation as it has become natural to them. PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS CODE-SWITCH WITH FRIENDS, TEACHER AND FAMILY MEMBERS Pie chart 1: Number of students of MARA College Seremban who code-switch in daily conversation. The pie chart above showed the number of students of MARA College Seremban who code-switch in their everyday conversations. From the pie chart, it is observed that 87 percent of the students frequently code-switch in their conversations while only 13 percent seldom code- switch the words in their conversations. From the results, students from this college highly code- switch when communicating with friends and teachers in the college, family members while at home, or in any other situations. PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS CODE-SWITCH WITH FRIENDS, TEACHER AND FAMILY MEMBERS Graph 2 Percentage of students of MARA College Seremban that code- switch (with English words) in daily conversations. I also compare the conversation between the students and their peers, teachers, and family members to show to whom the students code-switch mostly. The bar charts showed the percentage of students in the three categories. Firstly, about 99 percent code -switch when talking with their friends while only one percent of the students did not. Secondly, about 70 percent of students code- switch in everyday conversations with their teachers while 30 percents of students did not. And thirdly, it shows that about 50 percents of the students code-switch when conversing with family members. From the results, students from this college most probably code -switch during informal talks with friends such as in group discussions, chatting, or gossiping. In some situations, sometimes students spontaneously code -switch in group meetings or informal events among students. Therefore, students showed great interest to use English words with friends because they feel it is common phenomena for them. Sometimes students prefer to use simple English words which are very short and easy to pronounce to complete their conversation. Most of the students felt comfortable to code -switch when having conversations with teachers. This shows that code-switching trend has become common among the students and teachers and one of the ways students can communicate with teachers to discuss or to talk about their studies or to express their opinions during classes or other situations. In my opinion, most students prefer to code -switch when talking with teachers because they felt shy to speak proper English. This is because, they are not well exposed to English speaking environment and English is not their mother tongue but most students learnt English through their studies. In English classes, Malay students usually are very shy to speak English during English classes because outside of English class they use more Malay words. Bahiyah Abdul Hamid (1992) had also made some several conclusion out of her students behaviour in classes: It can be concluded that their silence is due to several possible reasons which are they dont know the answer or answers to questions asked, they lack the necessary language to communicate effectively in the English language and thus find it difficult to say what they cannot yet say at all, they feel insecure about their level of English and prefer to say little or nothing at all for fear that their mistakes would make their classmates or teacher laugh at or look down on them, they find it difficult to quickly switch from their mother tongue, or another language that they can communicate effectively in, to the English language. And they are following the appropriate and highly acceptable cultural behaviour of showing respect.  [1]   For those students who did not code -switch during their conversations with their teachers it may be because they prefer to use a more formal language or speak with proper usage of the language. Code -switch would involve words from Malay and English and most probably the sentence structure has a lot of grammatical errors. Among family members most students would usually be talking in the language of their mother-tongue. The reason they prefer to speak in Malay is because they are used to the language since their childhood. Priming is the term used to describe the phenomenon that prior exposure to something influences subsequent responses to the same or related things (Alessandro G, 2009a). Language can be primed, so that exposure to a linguistic feature in influences subsequent speed of responding to that feature, often called the reaction time or response latency (Alessandro G, 2009b). However, some families members speak with today trend which most people favour to code-switch during their conversations. The sentence structure will change when English words are used to replace words in the mother tongue language. REASONS WHY STUDENTS CODE SWITCHED This is an example of a daily conversation between students in the college. There are four students; Anis, Hafiz, Kamarudin, and Aziz. They were planning to study at National Library on weekends. The dialogues between friends were held in Malay and English languages. Dialogues Meaning Anis: Jom pergi National Library this weekend! Anis: Lets go to National Library this weekend! Kamarudin: Bila exactly? Kamarudin: When exactly? Hafiz: Hari Sabtu or Sunday? Hafiz: Saturday or Sunday? Anis: Sunday? tutup tak silap. Anis: Sunday? The library is closed if Im not mistaken. Hafiz: My aunt kata Isnin baru tutup. Hafiz: My aunt said it closes on Monday. Aziz: Tak bolehlah, holidaying with family. Aziz: I cant go, Im on holiday with my family. Based on the dialogues, there are many reasons that cause the students to code-switched. Through my research, I have discovered 10 reasons as to why students code-switch in their daily conversations. Graph 3 Students reason to code-switch in daily conversation The bar chart displayed the percentage of the students reasons to code-switch in daily conversations. Most students wanted to have conversations with others and they prefer to use simple English words such as English conjunctions; so, then, but to code-switch because they are easy to pronounce and most people understand the usage of these words in the sentence structure. They also believed that using English words in conversation can enhance their confidence when talking with others especially with teachers and friends. Besides, English words are used by people to stress points that are more understandable in the English language or to accurately describe the points because sometimes they could not find the right word with the same meaning from the mother- tongue language. Several students like to gain attention from others. They used English words when speaking with various people so that he or she is noticed by people to have his or her way of talking. Besides, some students love to pronounce the English words according to their favourite Hollywood or English artists so the words sound more interesting. Students also believed that they look more educated when using English words during conversations whether in college or outside the college. Talking in the mix of the two languages could also close the status gap between two people because it makes their conversations less formal with classmates, family members, and lecturers. STUDENTS PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS THE CODE SWITCHING PHENOMENON Graph 4 Students perception toward the code-switch phenomena. The pie chart above displayed the students perceptions towards the code-switching phenomena in daily conversation. About 60 percent of the students have good perception toward the phenomena. They believed that code-switching in conversations encourage them to use English words more frequently in conversation so that they become used to the words and eventually they can speak in full English sentence. In addition, they feel more confident when having conversation with people because code-switching make a person look more educated in front of people. Student feel much better when code-switching in conversation because the can speak smoothly as they care less about their grammar. However, about 40 percent of the students have negative outlook about this phenomena. They think that conversing to others using mono-language is much better than code-switching. People who are speaking to others in Malay have proper sentence structure when speaking. A number of students expressed that the mother-tongue language will soon be tarnished when more English words are used in conversations. They also believed that using mother -tongue language is actually showing that they are proud of their nationality. CONCLUSION Based on the results, there are found to be at least seven influential factors that cause students of MARA College Seremban to code-switch in their daily conversations which are peers pressure, self- interest, English materials, English movies; drama series etc, advertisements, family members and the norm of the society. The most influential is peer pressure followed by norms of the society and self- interest. The least influential factor is English materials. The students are greatly affected by people around them including friends and society that they lived in. If the society promotes the speaking trends, people around them will spontaneously follow the trend. Most students frequently code-switch in their daily conversations. The trend has blended into the society. It is also accepted by most students and it is normal to code-switch in informal conversations. The conversations are believed to make them friendlier and less formal when speaking with others. The results also showed that students code-switch with friends, teachers and family members. The do it most with friends as they are closer to them and also they are more feel more comfortable with them. Students also code-switch when talking to teachers because they spend time during classes and discussion because they could not find the right word to use. In the family among family members, students do not code switch so much. They usuakky speak to one another in their mother tongue language. There are several reasons as to why students prefer to code-switch in everyday conversations. Several students said they want to pronounce the words like the Hollywood artist, close the status gap, making the conversation less formal and simple etc, as mentioned earlier in my essay. The code-switching phenomenon has widely spread among the students in the college and also among todays youth. Some see this as positive while others see it as negative. So, is code-switching a positive phenomena to students or maybe to the youth? Obviously, most people accept the phenomena. Does that mean it code-switching benefits them during conversations? Can code-switching be accepted as a new kind of a language or is it seen to tarnish the languages involved? I think we should look at this phenomenon seriously as it would affect the language pattern of the next generations.

American Democracy :: essays research papers

Ravi Purohit-PUB 1250 2/16/05 The paper in which I chose to write about is American Democracy. When the thirteen British colonies in North America declared their independence in 1776, they laid down that â€Å"governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.† This meant that they wanted a government for the people, run by the people. This is one of the basic ideals upon which our nation was founded. The â€Å"colonies† needed to have a written constitution to define and therefore more specifically limit government powers. After the Articles of Confederation failed to work in the 13 colonies, the U.S. Constitution was created in 1787. One ideal found in the Preamble of the Constitution is the ideal that majority rules. In our government, the Congress uses majority rules to pass bills, through Congress and the President. As there are so many checks and balances, sometimes they don’t even make it as bill. This is one of the ideals found in the Constitution. This separation of powers, within the three co-ordinate branches, the legislative, executive, and judiciary branch has no supremacy over the others. This was designed to prevent any branch, from infringing individual liberties safeguarded by the Constitution. Our constitutional rights are very important. Without these rights, the United States would not be any different from other places of the world that do not have as many rights. Our rights secure our liberties and ensure justice for all. I believe the Constitution was such a great document necessary for achieving American Democracy. This document was very concise in its expressed powers. In the words of James Madison, â€Å"If men were angels, no government would be necessary.† This was from Federalist #51 and states the only way government wouldn’t be needed is if we all were perfect angels and we wouldn’t need rules. The Declaration of Independence means to me that all men and women join freely together to make an equal government for the U.S. This is basically said in the preamble by a famous quote: "All men are created equal." The ideal of our government have remained true over 225 years. The U.S. grants its citizens with the rights such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion, etc, which separates us from other countries. I think that all countries should be able to decide what government they want to have until they harm the United States of America in any way.

Benedict Arnold Essay -- essays research papers

Benedict Arnold The name Benedict Arnold has become a synonym for a traitor to one's country. In the first years of the American Revolution, however, Arnold was a brilliant and dashing general, highly respected for his service to the patriot cause (see Revolution, American). Benedict Arnold was born on Jan. 14, 1741, in Norwich, Conn. His father, Benedict, was a well-to-do landowner. His mother was Hannah King Waterman Arnold. While a boy, young Arnold twice ran away to join the colonial troops fighting in the French and Indian War. When he was 21 he settled in New Haven. In time he became a prosperous merchant and a captain in the Connecticut militia. He married Margaret Mansfield in 1767. They had three sons. Arnold played a gallant part in the American Revolution and became a major general in 1777. His wife had died in 1775. Early in 1779 he married Margaret Shippen, by whom he had four sons and one daughter. Arnold lived lavishly and soon found himself badly pressed for money. He then began his treasonable activities. Most historians agree that Arnold did so for money, though he may also have resented lack of further promotion. Whatever his motive, he regularly sent vital military information to the British and was well paid for it. His wife helped him, often acting as messenger. In 1780 Arnold obtained command of West Point and at once conspired to turn over the garrison to the British. He met Maj. John Andre, a British spy, and made final plans. Andre was captured, h...